Chapter E — Science & Technology

Coverage: 1 January 2025 – 3 June 2026 Sources: ISRO, MoS&T, DST, DRDO, MoEF, PIB, PRS, PMO, DW, SpaceNews, NITI Aayog Quantum Roadmap (Nov 2025), PSA-India (TRUST), CEEW, IETA. Static link backbone: NCERT Class 12 Physics (Atoms & Nuclei, Semiconductor Electronics); Shankar IAS Science & Technology; Current Affairs sections of Vision IAS, Insights IAS (S&T modules).

Contents (35 Topics)

1. Gaganyaan — TV-D2, G1/G2/G3 uncrewed tests, H1 crewed flight roadmap
2. SpaDEx — Space Docking Experiment
3. Axiom-4 mission — Shubhanshu Shukla at ISS
4. NISAR (NASA-ISRO SAR) Mission
5. Chandrayaan-4 — lunar sample return mission
6. Venus Orbiter Mission + Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS)
7. Aditya-L1 — SUIT solar flare observations + Lagrange Points
8. ISRO institutional milestones — National Space Day, NGLV, HLVM3
9. IN-SPACe, NSIL, New Space India Policy + space economy targets
10. National Quantum Mission (NQM) — overview
11. QpiAI-Indus 25-qubit + Cavari 64-qubit computers
12. Nobel Prize in Physics 2025 — quantum tunnelling
13. Nobel Prizes in Medicine and Chemistry 2025
14. DeepSeek — China AI "Sputnik moment" (January 2025)
15. India AI Mission — ₹10,371 crore + IndiaAI compute infrastructure
16. iCET renamed TRUST (February 2025) + Pax Silica coalition (February 2026)
17. Semiconductor ecosystem — Tata Electronics Dholera fab + Micron ATMP Sanand
18. Operation Sindoor (May 2025) — technology dimension
19. BrahMos Extended Range (ER) + Block-IV
20. Pralay missile — user trials completed (July 2025)
21. Hypersonic missile programme — DRDO scramjet tests (May 2025, Jan 2026)
22. Agni-VI — ICBM development status
23. Integrated Rocket Force (IRF)
24. DRDO indigenisation milestones — anti-drone, Akash-NG
25. Genome India Project — 10,000 genome sequences
26. National Green Hydrogen Mission — progress (2025-26)
27. PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana — solar rooftop progress
28. Nuclear energy — PHWR expansion + SMR ambitions
29. NavIC 2.0 — L1 frequency + civilian expansion
30. Bharat 6G Vision + Open RAN development
31. Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act 2023 — Rules 2025
32. ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce) expansion
33. Bharat AI Compute Facility (BAICF) + IndiaAI Portal
34. Biosafety framework + National Biosafety Authority draft
35. ISSAR 2025 — Indian Space Situational Awareness Report

1. Gaganyaan Programme — Current Status

In Brief: India's first human spaceflight initiative, approved with outlay of ₹20,193 crore. Implementing body: ISRO (with HAL, DRDO, other PSUs). Crewed flight (H1) targeted 2027.

• ISRO Chairman (2025-26): V. Narayanan (succeeded S. Somanath from January 2024).
• Four Gaganyatris (astronauts) shortlisted: Group Captain Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Group Captain Ajit Krishnan, Group Captain Angad Pratap, Wing Commander Shubhanshu Shukla — all Indian Air Force.
• Mission architecture:
  • TV-D1 (Oct 2023) — Crew Escape System test: successful.
  • TV-D2 — second abort test (Crew Escape System); NET late 2026 after G1.
  • G1 (Gaganyaan-1) — first uncrewed orbital test with Vyommitra humanoid robot; National Review Committee clearance received early May 2026; launch expected Q3-Q4 2026.
  • G2 — second uncrewed orbital test; NET 2026.
  • G3 — third uncrewed orbital test; NET 2026-27.
  • H1 — first crewed flight (3 Gaganyatris); targeted 2027.
• Spacecraft: Crew Module (CM) + Service Module (SM); built jointly by ISRO + HAL.
• Launch vehicle: HLVM3 (Human-Rated LVM3 / GSLV Mk III); certified for human spaceflight.
• India would become 4th nation to independently send humans to space (after USA, USSR/Russia, China).
• Life-support systems, crew escape, re-entry technology all indigenously developed.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Total approved cost: ₹20,193 crore
  2. Vyommitra = humanoid space robot for uncrewed test (developed by ISRO)
  3. HLVM3 payload to LEO: ~8 tonnes
  4. Gaganyatris = official term for Indian astronauts
  5. Mission orbit: Low Earth Orbit (LEO) — 400 km, 3-day mission
• Trap areas: TV-D tests ≠ orbital tests. TV-D is sub-orbital abort demonstration. G1/G2/G3 are full orbital tests.
• One-line revision: Gaganyaan = ₹20,193 cr; HLVM3; G1 uncrewed launch Q3-Q4 2026; H1 crewed 2027; India → 4th nation.

2. SpaDEx — Space Docking Experiment

In Brief: SpaDEx (Space Docking Experiment) — India's in-orbit docking demonstration. Launched 30 December 2024 from SDSC Sriharikota via PSLV-C60. Docking successfully demonstrated 16 January 2025 — India became the 4th country to demonstrate space docking (after USA, USSR/Russia, China).

• Two spacecraft: SDX01 (Chaser) + SDX02 (Target) — 220 kg each; launched together, docked in 475 km orbit.
• Why significant: Docking is prerequisite for space station construction, lunar sample return, deep space missions.
• Linked to: Chandrayaan-4 (needs docking for lunar ascent-rendezvous), Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS).
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. SpaDEx launch date: 30 December 2024; docking: 16 January 2025
  2. India = 4th country to demonstrate space docking
  3. PSLV-C60 was the launch vehicle
• Trap areas: SpaDEx is a technology demonstration, not a science mission. Docking ≠ rendezvous (rendezvous is approach; docking is physical coupling).
• One-line revision: SpaDEx docking 16 Jan 2025; India 4th nation; PSLV-C60; enables Chandrayaan-4 + BAS.

3. Axiom-4 Mission — Shubhanshu Shukla at ISS

In Brief: Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) — private crewed ISS mission by Axiom Space (USA). Indian astronaut Wing Commander Shubhanshu Shukla flew as Mission Specialist — first Indian to fly to the ISS and first Indian astronaut in space since Rakesh Sharma (1984).

• Launch: SpaceX Crew Dragon launch from Kennedy Space Center (targeted June 2025; exact date per PIB).
• Mission Duration: ~14 days at ISS.
• ISRO role: Shukla trained in collaboration with NASA + Axiom; also doubled as Gaganyaan crewed-flight training.
• Mission Specialist duties: Conducted microgravity experiments including studies on human physiology, plant biology, and protein crystallisation.
• Historical:
  • Rakesh Sharma (1984): First and only Indian in space till Ax-4; Soyuz T-11 with Soviet cosmonauts.
  • Shukla's mission is first under India-USA space cooperation framework.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Axiom Space = private US company; Ax-4 is 4th private mission to ISS
  2. Shukla is one of 4 Gaganyatris; holds rank of Wing Commander, IAF
  3. Launch vehicle: SpaceX Falcon 9 + Crew Dragon Endurance
  4. NASA, ISRO, ESA all had research aboard Ax-4
• Trap areas: Rakesh Sharma flew on a Soviet mission (1984); Shukla's Ax-4 is first Indian to fly to the ISS (International Space Station, operational since 2000).
• One-line revision: Shubhanshu Shukla on Ax-4 = first Indian at ISS; June 2025; Rakesh Sharma was first Indian in space (1984 via Soyuz).

4. NISAR Mission

In Brief: NASA-ISRO SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) mission — joint Earth observation satellite. Most expensive Earth-imaging satellite (cost ~USD 1.5 billion). Delayed from 2024; as of Jun 2026, launch pending from SDSC.

• Two radars: NASA's L-band SAR + ISRO's S-band SAR — together can map Earth's entire land and ice surfaces every 12 days.
• Orbit: Near-polar, Sun-synchronous at ~747 km altitude.
• Objectives: Monitor ecosystems, ice sheets, natural hazards (earthquakes, landslides, floods), glaciers; study carbon cycle.
• ISRO role: S-band radar, spacecraft bus, launch.
• NASA role: L-band radar, propulsion, GPS.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. NISAR = NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar
  2. SAR can work day/night, through clouds (unlike optical sensors)
  3. Launch vehicle: GSLV Mk II from SDSC Sriharikota
• Trap areas: NISAR ≠ INSAT or ResourceSat (India's own EO series). NISAR is bilateral with NASA.
• One-line revision: NISAR = NASA-ISRO joint SAR; ~USD 1.5 bn; L-band + S-band; 12-day repeat coverage; launch pending 2026.

5. Chandrayaan-4 — Lunar Sample Return

In Brief: Chandrayaan-4 — ISRO's lunar sample-return mission approved by Cabinet (November 2024); targeted 2028. Estimated cost: ₹2,104.06 crore.

• Mission profile: 4 modules: Transfer Module (TM), Lander Module (LM), Ascent Module (AM), Re-entry Module (RM).
• Key challenge: Rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit (enabled by SpaDEx heritage) + ascent from Moon + Earth re-entry.
• If successful: India becomes 4th country after USA, USSR and China to achieve lunar sample return.
• Previous: Chandrayaan-3 (2023) successfully landed at south polar region; Chandrayaan-1 (2008) discovered water ice; Chandrayaan-2 (2019) failed landing but orbiter operational.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Chandrayaan-3 landing site: Shiv Shakti Point (south polar region, 69°S)
  2. Chandrayaan-3 rover: Pragyan; lander: Vikram
  3. National Space Day = 23 August (Chandrayaan-3 landing anniversary, set in 2024)
• Trap areas: Chandrayaan-4 ≠ Chandrayaan-3 follow-up in terms of orbit — it is a lunar sample-return mission requiring ascent + rendezvous + Earth re-entry.
• One-line revision: Chandrayaan-4 approved Nov 2024, ₹2,104 cr; 4 modules; lunar sample return; targeted 2028; India → 4th sample-return nation.

6. Venus Orbiter Mission + Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS)

In Brief: Two ambitious long-term missions announced by PM Modi:

Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM):

• Targeted launch: 29 March 2028 (window-dependent).
• Objective: Study Venus's atmosphere, surface, volcanism, and evolution.
• Cost: ~₹1,236 crore.
• India would be 4th entity to orbit Venus (after USA, USSR, Japan/ESA).

Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS) — Indian Space Station:

• PM Modi's directive: First module by 2028; full station operational by 2035.

• Modular design similar to ISS/Tiangong.

• Connected to Gaganyaan docking capability.

• India aims to become 3rd nation with own operational space station (after USA/Russia ISS and China's Tiangong).

• Probable Prelims Facts:

  1. Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan, 2014) = India's first interplanetary mission; first Mars orbit for any Asian country
  2. India's Moon landing milestone: Chandrayaan-3 (Aug 2023) = 4th country to soft-land on Moon
  3. BAS first module: 2028; full station: 2035

• One-line revision: Venus Orbiter Mission launch 2028 (₹1,236 cr); BAS first module 2028, operational 2035; India → 3rd space station nation.

7. Aditya-L1 — Solar Observations

In Brief: Aditya-L1 — India's first solar mission; launched 2 September 2023; reached L1 Lagrange Point halo orbit on 6 January 2024. Fully operational 2025-26.

• 7 payloads study the Sun's corona, solar wind, magnetic storms.
• SUIT (Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope): In 2025, observed powerful solar flare + first-of-its-kind rare plasma ejection (CME) in UV light.
• L1 point = ~1.5 million km from Earth (no eclipses; continuous solar view).
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. 5 Lagrange Points in Sun-Earth system (L1–L5)
  2. L1 (between Sun and Earth) hosts: ISRO's Aditya-L1; NASA's SOHO, DSCOVR, ACE
  3. L2 (behind Earth from Sun) hosts: NASA James Webb Space Telescope; ESA Gaia, Herschel
  4. Solar activity cycle = 11 years; Solar Cycle 25 (2019-2030) reaching maximum ~2025
• Trap areas: Aditya-L1 is at L1 halo orbit — it does NOT orbit the Sun directly; it orbits the L1 point.
• One-line revision: Aditya-L1 at L1 Lagrange point since Jan 2024; SUIT observed solar flare + plasma ejection 2025; India's first solar mission.

8. ISRO Institutional Milestones

In Brief: Key ISRO institutional milestones 2025-26:

• National Space Day (23 August): Declared after Chandrayaan-3 landing (23 Aug 2023); first observed 23 Aug 2024; 2nd observed 23 Aug 2025.
• NGLV (Next Generation Launch Vehicle):
  • Semi-cryogenic + reusable first stage
  • Payload capacity: 30,000 kg to LEO (vs LVM3's 10,000 kg)
  • 3× reusability planned for first stage
  • Approved by Cabinet; development ongoing
• SpaDeX heritage satellites: ISRO working on dedicated debris avoidance and situational awareness.
• ISSAR 2025 released — Indian Space Situational Awareness Report (see Topic 35).
• ISRO-TIFR MoU: Signed 2025 for space science collaboration.
• LVM3-M05 (BlueBird Block-2): Commercial launch for AST SpaceMobile Inc., USA — part of NSIL's commercial business.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. ISRO established: 15 August 1969
  2. Headquarters: Bengaluru (Antariksh Bhavan)
  3. Launch pads: Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh
  4. First Indian satellite: Aryabhata (1975, Soviet launch)
  5. NGLV payload: 30,000 kg to LEO vs current LVM3's ~10,000 kg
• One-line revision: National Space Day = 23 Aug; NGLV = 30,000 kg LEO, reusable; ISRO-TIFR MoU 2025; BlueBird commercial launch.

9. IN-SPACe, NSIL + India's Space Economy

In Brief: IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) — regulatory and promotional body for private space sector under DOS (Dept. of Space). Operational since 2020; India Space Policy 2023 gave it full authority.

• India Space Policy 2023:
  • ISRO = research + development + national missions
  • IN-SPACe = authorise, promote, regulate private sector
  • NSIL = commercial arm (satellite launches, manufacturing)
• India's space economy (2025): USD ~8.4 billion (~2% of global); target 8% by 2030 (~USD 44 billion).
• Private companies active:
  • Agnikul Cosmos — SoRTeD (3D-printed rocket, Agnilet engine)
  • Skyroot Aerospace — Vikram-S (suborbital)
  • Pixxel — hyperspectral imaging constellation
• Budget 2026-27: Space sector outlay increased ~35%.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. IN-SPACe headquarters: Ahmedabad
  2. NSIL = New Space India Limited (PSU under DOS)
  3. First fully privately-built PSLV (PSLV-C58 with industry consortium) — demonstrated
• One-line revision: India Space Policy 2023: ISRO/IN-SPACe/NSIL roles defined; space economy $8.4 bn → target $44 bn (8%) by 2030.

10. National Quantum Mission (NQM)

In Brief: Approved by Cabinet on 19 April 2023; total outlay ₹6,003.65 crore over 2023-2031. One of the largest science missions approved by India.

• Lead: Department of Science and Technology (DST) under MoS&T.
• 4 Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs):
  1. IIT Bombay — Quantum Computing
  2. IIT Delhi — Quantum Communication
  3. IIT Madras — Quantum Sensing & Metrology
  4. IISc Bangalore — Quantum Materials & Devices
• Targets (2023-2031):
  • Develop quantum computers with 50–1,000 physical qubits
  • Quantum communication over 2,000 km via satellite
  • Quantum sensing for precise navigation/imaging/medical
  • Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) for critical infrastructure
• "Q-Day" concern: When quantum computers can break RSA/ECC encryption — projected ~2029-35.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. NQM cost: ₹6,003.65 crore; period: 2023-2031
  2. T-Hub lead: IIT Bombay (computing), IIT Delhi (communication), IIT Madras (sensing), IISc (materials)
  3. India aims to be top-3 quantum economy by 2035
• Trap areas: NQM ≠ National Mission for Quantum Technologies (there is no separate such mission; NQM IS the mission).
• One-line revision: NQM = ₹6,003.65 cr; 2023-2031; 4 T-Hubs at IITs/IISc; 50-1000 qubit target; quantum comm 2000 km via satellite.

11. India's First Quantum Computers (2025-26)

In Brief: India's quantum hardware development accelerated rapidly.

• QpiAI-Indus (April 2025):
  • India's first 25-qubit full-stack superconducting quantum computer
  • Built by QpiAI (Bengaluru-based startup)
  • "Full-stack" = includes hardware, control electronics, and quantum cloud access layer
• Cavari Processor (early 2026):
  • 64-qubit quantum processor demonstrated by researchers in Bengaluru
  • Significant leap in qubit scaling
• C-DOT + QNU Labs: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) + Secure Video IP phones developed under NQM.
• Amaravati Quantum Valley (AQV): Andhra Pradesh initiative (Nov 2025) with Andhra Pradesh Quantum Computing Policy 2025-30; IBM Quantum System Two announced for installation; IBM + TCS launched Quantum Cloud Services + Quantum Innovation Centre (Feb 2026).
• NITI Aayog Quantum Roadmap (Nov 2025): Published roadmap for transforming India into quantum-powered economy.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. QpiAI-Indus = India's first commercial superconducting quantum computer; 25 qubits; Apr 2025
  2. Qubit = quantum bit (superposition of 0 and 1)
  3. Josephson junction is the key component in superconducting qubits (Nobel 2025 context)
• One-line revision: QpiAI-Indus 25-qubit Apr 2025 = India's first quantum computer; Cavari 64-qubit 2026; AQV AP; NITI Aayog Quantum Roadmap Nov 2025.

12. Nobel Prize in Physics 2025 — Quantum Tunnelling

In Brief: The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to John Clarke (UC Berkeley), Michel Devoret (Yale/Google), and John Martinis (UC Santa Barbara/Google) for their discovery of "macroscopic quantum mechanical tunnelling and energy quantisation in an electric circuit."

• Key concept: Quantum tunnelling normally applies to particles. They showed it also occurs in macroscopic superconducting circuits containing a Josephson junction.
• Practical significance: Their experiments (mid-1980s) are the foundation of modern superconducting quantum computers — directly enabling Google's Sycamore, IBM Quantum, etc.
• UPSC relevance: Links quantum computing (S&T), India's NQM, and Nobel tradition of recognising foundational physics.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Award date: 7 October 2025 (Physics Nobel always announced first Monday of October)
  2. Devoret and Martinis both worked at Google Quantum AI
  3. Josephson Junction = two superconductors separated by thin insulator; key to qubit
• Trap areas: 2025 Nobel Physics ≠ AI prize — it is quantum tunnelling. (Nobel in Physics 2024 was Geoffrey Hinton + John Hopfield for neural networks.)
• One-line revision: Nobel Physics 2025 = John Clarke, Devoret, Martinis for macroscopic quantum tunnelling; Josephson junction; foundation of superconducting quantum computers.

13. Nobel Prizes in Medicine and Chemistry 2025

In Brief:

Physiology/Medicine 2025:

• Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun awarded for discovery of microRNA and its role in gene regulation (originally discovered 1993 in C. elegans).
• Significance: microRNA controls gene expression; vital for understanding cancer, developmental disorders.

Chemistry 2025:

• David Baker (U Washington) for computational protein design; Demis Hassabis + John Jumper (Google DeepMind) for AlphaFold — AI-based protein structure prediction.
• AlphaFold2 (2020): Solved the "50-year protein folding problem"; predicted structures of ~200 million proteins (all known proteins).
• UPSC relevance: Links AI + biology; genomics research; pharma drug design.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Nobel in Chemistry 2024: David Baker + Demis Hassabis + John Jumper — protein structure
  2. AlphaFold database maintained by EMBL-EBI; freely accessible
  3. microRNA = small, non-coding RNA (~22 nucleotides) that silences mRNA
• One-line revision: Nobel Medicine 2025 = Ambros + Ruvkun (microRNA); Nobel Chemistry 2025 = Baker + Hassabis + Jumper (protein folding/AlphaFold).

14. DeepSeek — China's AI "Sputnik Moment" (January 2025)

In Brief: Chinese AI startup DeepSeek released DeepSeek-V3 (Dec 2024) and DeepSeek-R1 (Jan 2025) — open-weight reasoning models that matched or surpassed OpenAI's GPT-4/o1, built at a fraction of the cost (~USD 6 million claimed vs billions for competitors).

• Significance:
  • Demonstrated that frontier AI models can be trained cost-effectively even with limited GPU access (due to US export controls on NVIDIA A100/H100 to China)
  • Called a "Sputnik Moment" for US AI supremacy
  • Global tech stocks lost ~USD 1 trillion in a day
  • Proved algorithmic efficiency can partially compensate for compute restrictions
• Policy implication for India: Reduces barriers for developing domestic AI models; makes AI more democratised.
• India's response: Reinforced push for IndiaAI compute infrastructure; concerns about data privacy (DeepSeek servers in China).
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. DeepSeek = Chinese private AI company (founded 2023 by Liang Wenfeng)
  2. DeepSeek-R1 uses Chain-of-Thought reasoning similar to OpenAI's o1
  3. US export controls: Export Administration Regulations (EAR) restrict NVIDIA H100/A100 to China
• Trap areas: DeepSeek ≠ ChatGPT (ChatGPT is OpenAI; DeepSeek is a separate Chinese company).
• One-line revision: DeepSeek R1 Jan 2025 = China's Sputnik AI moment; frontier model at fraction of cost; US export controls on chips partially circumvented via efficiency.

15. India AI Mission (₹10,371 Crore)

In Brief: India AI Mission approved by Cabinet on 7 March 2024 with outlay of ₹10,371.92 crore over 5 years (2024-29). Implementing body: IndiaAI (under MeitY).

• 7 pillars:
  1. IndiaAI Compute Capacity (10,000+ GPU cluster, BAICF)
  2. IndiaAI Innovation Centre (IAIC)
  3. IndiaAI Datasets Platform (open government + private datasets)
  4. IndiaAI Application Development Initiative (sectoral AI)
  5. IndiaAI FutureSkills
  6. IndiaAI Startup Financing
  7. Safe & Trusted AI (governance frameworks)
• Bharat AI Compute Facility (BAICF): Public cloud infrastructure; 10,000+ GPUs; NVIDIA A100/H100 procurement; operational in phases from 2025.
• IndiaAI Portal (indiaai.gov.in): Single-window hub launched; ~100+ open datasets published 2025.
• India AI Impact Summit (Feb 2026): Hosted PM Modi; major AI partnership announcements including iCET/TRUST AI roadmap.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. India AI Mission: ₹10,371.92 crore, 5 years (2024-29)
  2. MeitY (Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology) is nodal ministry
  3. BAICF targets 10,000+ GPUs in public compute facility
• One-line revision: India AI Mission ₹10,372 cr (2024-29); 7 pillars; MeitY nodal; BAICF 10,000+ GPUs; IndiaAI Portal launched.

16. iCET Renamed TRUST + Pax Silica

In Brief:

iCET → TRUST (February 2025):

• During PM Modi's Washington visit (13 Feb 2025), US-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) was renamed Transforming Relations Utilising Strategic Technologies (TRUST).
• Jointly steered by NSAs of both countries.
• Retains focus on semiconductors, AI, quantum, space; expands to critical minerals, biotech, energy.
• AI Infrastructure Roadmap: US-India roadmap to accelerate AI compute in India.

Pax Silica Coalition (20 February 2026):

• India became the 10th member of Pax Silica — coalition of democracies to secure semiconductor supply chains.

• Other members: Australia, Israel, Japan, Qatar, South Korea, Singapore, UAE, UK + one more.

• Announced at India AI Impact Summit.

• Objective: Reduce supply chain concentration; counter economic coercion in critical tech.

• Probable Prelims Facts:

  1. iCET was launched May 2022 (Biden-Modi summit)
  2. TRUST announced 13 February 2025
  3. Pax Silica: India is 10th member; coalition announced at India AI Impact Summit

• One-line revision: iCET → TRUST (Feb 2025, PM Modi Washington visit); India joined Pax Silica semiconductor coalition as 10th member (Feb 2026).

17. Semiconductor Ecosystem — Dholera + Micron ATMP

In Brief: India's semiconductor industry saw two landmark investments:

Tata Electronics Plant, Dholera (Gujarat):

• India's first indigenous semiconductor fab by Tata Electronics Private Ltd (TEPL) + PSMC (Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corp, Taiwan).
• Location: Dholera Special Investment Region (SIR), Gujarat.
• Node: 28 nm + 40 nm CMOS; target capacity ~50,000 wafers/month.
• Approved under India Semiconductor Mission (ISM); Cabinet approval Feb 2024.
• Construction underway; first chips expected 2026-27.
• Government support: 50% capital subsidy under Semicon India programme.

Micron Technology ATMP Plant, Sanand (Gujarat):

• First global semiconductor company to set up in India.

• ATMP (Assembly, Testing, Marking, Packaging) facility for DRAM and NAND chips.

• Operational: June 2025 (first India-assembled chips shipped).

• Government + Micron investment: ~₹22,516 crore total.

• Probable Prelims Facts:

  1. India Semiconductor Mission (ISM): under MeitY; approved Feb 2021; ₹76,000 cr PLI scheme
  2. Semicon India 2025 conference: flagship event for industry
  3. Key semiconductor companies approved: Tata-PSMC (Dholera), Micron (Sanand), CG Power-Renesas-Stars (Sanand)

• Trap areas: Micron ATMP ≠ fab (ATMP is assembly/packaging, not wafer fabrication). India's first wafer fab will be Dholera.

• One-line revision: Micron ATMP Sanand operational June 2025; Tata-PSMC fab Dholera under construction (first India wafer fab); 50% govt subsidy under ISM.

18. Operation Sindoor — Technology Dimension (May 2025)

In Brief: Operation Sindoor (May 7-10, 2025) — India's military strikes on Pakistani terror infrastructure. Technology dimension highly relevant for UPSC.

• Strike assets used:
  • BrahMos Block-I/II cruise missiles: penetrated Chinese-supplied air defences
  • Loitering munitions / Drones (Kamikaze drones)
  • SCALP/HAMMER air-launched precision munitions (from Rafale)
  • SPICE-2000 bombs
• Electronic Warfare (EW): India's EW suites neutralised Pakistani radar and communication systems.
• Pakistan's air defence: HQ-9 and HQ-16 Chinese systems; SPADA 2000 Italian system — partially degraded.
• Ceasefire: India-Pakistan ceasefire on 10 May 2025 (US-mediated).
• S&T learnings: India's indigenous missile systems and Rafale integration validated; drone swarm tactics emerged as new doctrinal challenge.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. BrahMos = India-Russia joint venture; headquartered in New Delhi; supersonic (Mach 2.8+)
  2. Loitering munition = drone that orbits over target, then dives into it
  3. SPICE-2000 = Israeli electro-optic guided bomb (precision glide bomb)
• Trap areas: Operation Sindoor was a conventional precision strike, not nuclear. India maintained "no first use" nuclear posture.
• One-line revision: Operation Sindoor May 2025 = BrahMos + drones + SCALP via Rafale; Indian EW degraded Pakistani radar; ceasefire May 10 via US mediation.

19. BrahMos Extended Range (ER) + Block-IV

In Brief: BrahMos is the world's fastest supersonic cruise missile in operational service; India-Russia BAPL (BrahMos Aerospace Pvt. Ltd.) joint venture (50:50).

• BrahMos ER (Extended Range):
  • Range: ~800 km (vs original 290 km)
  • DAC clearance: ₹20,000 crore order cleared March 2025
  • Full trials ongoing; induction expected 2027
  • NavIC + INS navigation; sub-metre accuracy confirmed
• BrahMos-NG (Next Gen): Lighter (lighter by 50%), for smaller platforms
• BrahMos Block-IV: Air-launched variant with enhanced target profile capability; under development
• Export: Philippines (2022 export, first overseas BrahMos sale); negotiations with Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, UAE
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. BrahMos range (original): 290 km; ER: 800 km
  2. Speed: Mach 2.8+ (supersonic; not hypersonic)
  3. BAPL = BrahMos Aerospace Private Ltd; JV India (DRDO/MIDHANI)-Russia (NPO Mashinostroyenia); India holds 50.5%, Russia 49.5%
  4. First export: Philippines (signed 2022, deliveries began 2024)
• Trap areas: BrahMos is supersonic (Mach 2.8+), NOT hypersonic. India's hypersonic missile is separate.
• One-line revision: BrahMos ER = 800 km range, ₹20,000 cr order Mar 2025; Philippines = first export; Block-IV in development; supersonic, not hypersonic.

20. Pralay Missile — User Trials (July 2025)

In Brief: Pralay = India's first surface-to-surface quasi-ballistic missile (also called conventional deterrence missile). Developed by DRDO.

• DRDO user trials: Successfully completed 28-29 July 2025 from Abdul Kalam Island (Wheeler Island), Odisha. DRDO Chairman confirmed "paves the way for induction."
• Range: 150–500 km (quasi-ballistic trajectory — harder to intercept than ballistic).
• Payload: 500–700 kg conventional warhead.
• Role: Integrated Rocket Force (IRF) — conventional surface-to-surface strikes on military targets; precision guided.
• Export interest: Armenia exploring acquisition (would be India's second major missile export after BrahMos).
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Pralay = quasi-ballistic; can manoeuvre during terminal phase (unlike pure ballistic)
  2. Test site: Abdul Kalam Island (formerly Wheeler Island, renamed 2015 after Dr APJ Abdul Kalam)
  3. Pralay is key missile of Integrated Rocket Force
• One-line revision: Pralay user trials 28-29 Jul 2025, Abdul Kalam Island; quasi-ballistic, 150-500 km; induction cleared; Armenia interested; IRF role.

21. Hypersonic Missile Programme — DRDO Scramjet Tests

In Brief: India accelerating hypersonic missile development. Two landmark tests in 2025-26:

• May 2025: DRDO tested an actively cooled scramjet combustion chamber at Hyderabad for >1,000 seconds — thermal management breakthrough.
• January 2026: DRDO conducted a 12-minute hypersonic scramjet test — placing India among elite nations with thermal management for long-duration hypersonic flight.
• HSTDV (Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle): Earlier demonstrated Mach 6+ in September 2020.
• Significance: Scramjet = air-breathing engine; atmospheric oxygen = lighter missile; suitable for Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV) too.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Hypersonic = Mach 5+ (supersonic = Mach 1-4.9)
  2. Scramjet = supersonic combustion ramjet — uses oxygen from atmosphere (vs ramjet or rocket)
  3. Nations with hypersonic missiles: USA, Russia, China; India testing; France, Australia R&D
  4. DRDO headquarters: New Delhi (DRDO Chair Dr Samir V Kamat, 2022-present)
• Trap areas: Scramjet ≠ rocket engine. Scramjet needs to be accelerated to hypersonic speed first (by a rocket booster) — it cannot take off from rest.
• One-line revision: DRDO scramjet tested >1,000 sec (May 2025) + 12-min (Jan 2026); India in elite hypersonic club; Scramjet = air-breathing, atmospheric oxygen.

22. Agni Programme — Agni-VI Development Status

In Brief: India's Agni missile series:

• Agni-V MIRV (Mar 2024): Mission Divyastra — first MIRV (Multiple Independently targetable Re-entry Vehicle) test. India is 5th nation after USA, USSR, UK, China, France to demonstrate MIRV.
• Agni-VI: ICBM range; road-mobile; MIRVs; under development; no confirmed test as of Jun 2026.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. All Agni missiles are developed by DRDO + ASL (Advanced Systems Laboratory), Hyderabad
  2. Agni-V can reach entire China (range ~5,000-8,000 km)
  3. MIRV = one missile, multiple warheads hitting different targets
• One-line revision: Agni-V MIRV (Mission Divyastra, Mar 2024) = India 5th MIRV nation; Agni-VI ICBM+ in development; Agni-Prime user trials 2025.

23. Integrated Rocket Force (IRF)

In Brief: India formalized the Integrated Rocket Force (IRF) under the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) framework — dedicated conventional rocket/missile force. Announced in September 2024 (PM Modi's directive at National Space and Defence Summit); operationalised in 2025.

• Role: Conventional (non-nuclear) precision long-range surface-to-surface strikes, primarily Pralay missiles.
• Inspired by: China's PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) model.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. IRF = conventional missile force (not nuclear; Strategic Forces Command handles nuclear)
  2. Strategic Forces Command (SFC) under NSA/CCS handles nuclear delivery
  3. CDS is head of Dept. of Military Affairs; India's first CDS was Gen. Bipin Rawat (2020, posthumously)
• One-line revision: IRF = India's conventional rocket force under CDS; Pralay missiles core; announced 2024; operational 2025; inspired by China's PLARF.

24. DRDO — Akash-NG + Anti-Drone Systems

In Brief: Key DRDO developments 2025-26:

• Akash-NG (Next Generation):
  • Improved SAM; all-weather, range ~80 km, Mach 2.5+; active seeker homing.
  • Successful user trials 2025; induction in progress.
  • Will replace Akash (range 25 km) in IAF and Army.
• VAYU BAAN: India's first helicopter-launched Unmanned Aerial System (UAS); operates in GNSS-denied (GPS-jammed) environments; stand-off range >50 km; dual-role (ISR + precision strike). Developed by BBDS.
• Vajra Strike: AI-powered Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) for anti-drone defence; unveiled 2025.
• QRSAM (Quick Reaction SAM): User trials completed 2025; induction approved.
• Defence Exports: India's defence exports touched ₹21,083 crore (FY 2025-26) — record high (vs ₹8,000 crore in 2020-21). Target: USD 5 bn by 2028-29.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Defence exports target: USD 5 billion by 2028-29
  2. Akash SAM developed by: DRDO + BEL (Bharat Electronics Ltd)
  3. iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence): Defence innovation startup platform; 250+ startups by 2025
• One-line revision: Akash-NG user trials 2025; defence exports ₹21,083 cr (FY26) record; Vajra Strike DEW; VAYU BAAN helicopter-launched drone; iDEX 250+ startups.

25. Genome India Project — 10,000 Sequences

In Brief: Genome India Project (GIP) launched 2020 by DBT; completed sequencing of ~10,000 whole human genomes from diverse Indian populations — milestone announced June 2025.

• Lead: Department of Biotechnology (DBT) + CCMB (Centre for Cellular & Molecular Biology), Hyderabad.
• Why important: Indian population has unique genetic variants (founder effects, consanguinity patterns, disease predispositions). GIP creates reference genome dataset for India.
• Applications: Personalised medicine, disease risk prediction, drug development.
• Linkage to AlphaFold / Chemistry Nobel 2025 — protein structure prediction relevant for Indian genetic variants.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. GIP = 10,000 genomes from 83+ ethnic groups across India
  2. CCMB = Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) lab
  3. India's genome diversity is extremely high — one of 4 super-diverse population clusters globally
• One-line revision: Genome India Project: 10,000 whole genomes from 83+ ethnic groups; milestone Jun 2025; DBT + CCMB; personalised medicine applications.

26. National Green Hydrogen Mission — Progress

In Brief: Approved January 2023; outlay ₹19,744 crore (2021-30). Target: 5 MMT (million metric tonnes) annual green hydrogen production by 2030.

• 2025-26 progress:
  • SIGHT (Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition) scheme: 8 electrolyser manufacturers + 3 green H2 producers selected under Phase I (total commitments ~1.5 MMT/yr)
  • NTPC + Oil India + ONGC: projects under development
  • IOCL setting up green H2 plant at Mathura refinery
  • Cost target: USD 1/kg by 2030 (current USD 4-6/kg)
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Green Hydrogen = produced by electrolysis using renewable electricity (vs grey H2 from methane)
  2. India target: 5 MMT green H2 + 100 GW RE capacity for H2 by 2030
  3. SIGHT = Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition
• One-line revision: National Green Hydrogen Mission = 5 MMT by 2030, ₹19,744 cr; SIGHT scheme Phase I executed; cost target USD 1/kg.

27. PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana

In Brief: Launched 13 February 2024 by PM Modi. Target: install 1 crore rooftop solar units by 2027 with 300 units free electricity/month.

• Scheme design:
  • Subsidy: up to 3 kW — 40% central subsidy; 3-10 kW — 20% subsidy
  • Connected to PM-KUSUM (agricultural solar pumps) as sister scheme
  • Portal: pmsuryaghar.gov.in
• 2025-26 progress: 60+ lakh registrations; 30+ lakh installations sanctioned; 7 lakh+ systems installed and operational; IIT Bombay + TERI monitoring.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. India's installed solar capacity (May 2026): ~89 GW (2nd fastest growing)
  2. India's overall RE capacity: ~215 GW (May 2026)
  3. PM-KUSUM = Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Uttham Mahabhiyan (solar pumps)
• One-line revision: PM Surya Ghar launched 13 Feb 2024; 1 crore rooftop target; 40% subsidy up to 3kW; 7 lakh+ installations operational by Jun 2026.

28. Nuclear Energy — PHWR Expansion + SMR Plans

In Brief: India's nuclear energy programme under DAE (Department of Atomic Energy).

• Approved expansion (Cabinet, 2024): 10 new 700 MW PHWR (Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor) units at 5 sites — Gorakhpur (HR), Chutka (MP), Kaiga (KA), Mahi Banswara (RJ), Kovvada (AP) — total: 7,000 MW additional capacity.
• India's current nuclear capacity: ~7,700 MW (23 operational reactors).
• Kudankulam 3&4 (VVER with Russia): Construction underway; commissioning ~2026-27.
• SMRs (Small Modular Reactors): NPCIL exploring indigenous SMR design; Policy under formulation 2025.
• India's nuclear fleet:
  • PHWR (Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor) = flagship indigenous technology
  • VVER = Russian LWGR (Light Water Graphite Reactor) at Kudankulam
  • PFBR (Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, Kalpakkam) — pending commercial operation
• PFBR update: 500 MW PFBR at Kalpakkam — critical delayed; power production trials 2026.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. India's nuclear targets: 100 GW by 2032 (scaled up from 22,500 MW by 2031 — revised up)
  2. NPCIL = Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited; BARC = Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
  3. 3-stage Indian nuclear programme (Homi Bhabha): Stage-I = PHWRs (Thorium-breeding); Stage-II = FBRs; Stage-III = Advanced Thorium Reactors
• One-line revision: 10 new PHWRs (7,000 MW) approved 2024; PFBR Kalpakkam trials 2026; India targeting 100 GW nuclear by 2032; 3-stage Bhabha programme.

29. NavIC 2.0 — Civilian Expansion

In Brief: NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) = India's regional navigation satellite system. In 2025, NavIC 2.0 expansion underway.

• Current constellation: 7 operational satellites (GEO + GSO) covering India + 1,500 km radius.
• NavIC 2.0 expansion: Adding L1 frequency (currently L5 + S-band only). L1 compatibility enables civil aviation, smartphones, automotive integration — most GPS receivers worldwide use L1.
• NVS-01 (NavIC-2): Launched 29 May 2023 — first NavIC satellite with L1 signal capability. NVS-02 slated for 2025.
• Apple + Qualcomm integration: Major smartphone chipmakers announced NavIC support post-2025.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. NavIC = Navigation with Indian Constellation; formerly IRNSS
  2. Operational coverage: Primary service area = India + 1,500 km; Extended service area = further region
  3. NavIC frequency bands: L5 (1176.45 MHz) + S-band (2492.028 MHz) (current); adding L1 (1575.42 MHz)
  4. GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), BeiDou (China) = global systems; NavIC + QZSS (Japan) = regional
• One-line revision: NavIC 2.0 adds L1 frequency; NVS-01 (2023) + NVS-02 (2025); smartphone integration; Apple/Qualcomm NavIC support 2025.

30. Bharat 6G Vision + Open RAN

In Brief: India released Bharat 6G Vision in March 2023; Technology Innovation Group (TIG) on 6G under DoT leading 6G patent filings and standardisation.

• Target: Global launch of 6G by 2030; India aims for 10% global patents in 6G.
• 6G key features: Terahertz spectrum; AI-native; sub-millisecond latency; energy efficient.
• Open RAN (Radio Access Network): India promoting Open RAN (disaggregated telecoms architecture) via O-RAN Alliance membership + indigenous Open RAN stack development by CDOT + startups.
• Bharat 5G: Full 5G rollout across India largely complete by end-2025 (>90% district coverage). Jio and Airtel led deployment.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. Bharat 6G Vision released: March 2023 (same month as Chandrayaan-3 launch announcement)
  2. DoT = Department of Telecommunications (under MoC&IT)
  3. C-DOT = Centre for Development of Telematics; key govt telecom R&D body
  4. India approved 5G spectrum at INR 1.5 lakh cr auction in 2022
• One-line revision: Bharat 6G Vision Mar 2023; 10% global patent target; 6G by 2030; 5G rollout 90%+ districts by 2025; Open RAN via C-DOT.

31. Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act + Rules

In Brief: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 passed in Parliament August 2023; DPDP Rules, 2025 released in draft January 2025 for consultation; final notification pending (as of Jun 2026).

• Key provisions:
  • Data Fiduciary (entity collecting data) vs Data Principal (individual)
  • Right to access, correction, erasure, and grievance redressal
  • Consent manager framework
  • Data Protection Board of India (DPBI) = quasi-judicial body for enforcement
  • Cross-border data transfer = "whitelist" countries to be notified by Centre
• DPDP Rules 2025 (draft): Defined obligations for children's data (age verification); processing by government; consent manager registration.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. India had no comprehensive data protection law before 2023 (only IT Act 2000 Section 43A and 72A)
  2. DPDP Act 2023 replaced Personal Data Protection Bill 2019 (withdrawn Aug 2022)
  3. Data Protection Board of India = not a court; adjudicates complaints; similar to TDSAT
• Trap areas: DPDP does NOT apply to personal data processed for national security / state security; also exempts certain Research/Archive uses.
• One-line revision: DPDP Act 2023; Rules 2025 (draft); Data Principal rights + Data Fiduciary duties; Data Protection Board of India for enforcement; cross-border transfer whitelisting.

32. ONDC — Open Network for Digital Commerce

In Brief: ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce) — government-promoted interoperable digital commerce protocol launched by DPIIT in 2022; scaled nationally 2025.

• Model: Like UPI for payments, ONDC is open protocol for e-commerce — any buyer app can transact with any seller app.
• 2025-26 milestones: Crossed 6 million daily transactions; expanded to food delivery, mobility (ride-hailing via ONDC network), B2B commerce.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. ONDC promoted by DPIIT (not MeitY)
  2. Built on Beckn Protocol (open standard)
  3. ONDC ≠ a platform; it is a network/protocol (like HTTP for web)
• One-line revision: ONDC = open commerce protocol (like UPI for trade); DPIIT promoted; 6 mn daily transactions 2025; food + mobility + B2B.

33. Bharat AI Compute Facility (BAICF) + IndiaAI

In Brief: Under India AI Mission, the government will establish BAICF — public AI compute cloud for startups, researchers, and government departments.

• Procurement status (2025-26): NVIDIA GPU cluster (H100) procurement contracted; ~5,000 GPUs in Phase I operational; 10,000 GPU target by 2026-27.
• IndiaAI portal (indiaai.gov.in): Published 100+ public datasets; enables dataset discovery for AI training.
• Landmark: At India AI Impact Summit (Feb 2026), PM Modi unveiled a national AI policy framework draft — ethical AI, safety testing, model audit requirements.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. BAICF will be among Asia's largest public AI clusters
  2. NASSCOM + IISc co-anchoring AI research coordination
  3. India's AI startup ecosystem: >3,500 AI startups (2025 NASSCOM estimate); 3rd largest globally
• One-line revision: BAICF Phase I operational 5,000 H100 GPUs 2025-26; IndiaAI portal 100+ datasets; National AI Policy draft Feb 2026.

34. Biosafety Framework + National Biosafety Authority

In Brief: India's biosafety governance underwent major review in 2025-26.

• Existing framework: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under MoEFCC regulates GMOs. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) under DBT for R&D.
• Draft National Biosafety Authority Bill 2025 (August 2025): Proposes replacing GEAC + RCGM with a unified National Biosafety Authority (NBA) with wider mandate including gene editing, synthetic biology, biosecurity.
• Gene editing updates: GEAC approved field trials for genome-edited rice (HB4 variety) in 2025 — first rice with drought tolerance genome-edited in India.
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. GEAC = under MoEFCC; highest regulatory body for GMO approvals
  2. Only approved GM crop in India: Bt cotton (Bacillus thuringiensis gene; approved 2002) — commercial cultivation
  3. Bt Brinjal approved by GEAC 2010; placed on hold by Centre
  4. Gene editing (CRISPR-Cas9) ≠ conventional GMO (different regulatory pathway proposed)
• One-line revision: Draft NBA Bill 2025 to replace GEAC + RCGM; genome-edited drought-tolerant rice field trials 2025; Bt cotton = only approved GM crop commercially.

35. ISSAR 2025 — Indian Space Situational Awareness Report

In Brief: ISSAR (Indian Space Situational Awareness Report) 2025 released by ISRO — India's first annual comprehensive orbital debris and space traffic management report.

• Key findings:
  • ~27,000 objects being tracked in orbit globally; India tracks ~10,000+ with ISTRAC network.
  • India's satellites faced 200+ conjunction events (close approaches) in 2024.
  • Space debris mitigation: ISRO compliant with IADC (Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee) guidelines.
• NETRA (Network for Space Objects Tracking and Analysis): ISRO's SSA system (Bengaluru).
• Probable Prelims Facts:
  1. IADC = Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee; India (ISRO) is member
  2. Kessler Syndrome = cascading debris collision chain threatening orbital zones
  3. NETRA = Network for Space Objects Tracking and Analysis (ISRO SSA centre)
• One-line revision: ISSAR 2025 = ISRO's first annual space situational awareness report; 200+ conjunction events for India's satellites; NETRA for space tracking; IADC guidelines followed.

Prelims Facts Strip — Chapter E (Memorise)

Chapter E — 15 UPSC-Standard MCQs

Q1. Consider the following about the Gaganyaan programme:

1. The G1 mission is an uncrewed orbital test and will carry the Vyommitra humanoid robot.
2. The Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3) has been certified for human spaceflight.
3. If H1 is successful, India would become the fourth country to independently send humans to space on a sovereign spacecraft.

Which are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Q2. SpaDEx, launched on 30 December 2024, demonstrated: (a) In-orbit space docking, making India the 4th country to achieve this. (b) India's first hypersonic re-entry technology. (c) Autonomous lunar landing capability. (d) A quantum key distribution link between two satellites.

Q3. Consider the following about the National Quantum Mission (NQM):

1. It is approved with an outlay of ₹6,003.65 crore for the period 2023-2031.
2. Its four Thematic Hubs are at IIT Bombay, IIT Delhi, IIT Madras, and IISc Bangalore.
3. It is led by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).

Which are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation: NQM is led by DST (Dept. of Science and Technology), not MeitY.

Q4. The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for: (a) Artificial Intelligence and deep learning (neural networks). (b) Macroscopic quantum mechanical tunnelling and energy quantisation in electric circuits. (c) Discovery of microRNA and gene regulation. (d) Computational protein design using AI.

Q5. Consider the following pairs (Missile — Type):

1. BrahMos — Supersonic cruise missile
2. Pralay — Quasi-ballistic surface-to-surface missile
3. Nirbhay — Supersonic land-attack missile
4. Agni-V — MIRV-capable ICBM

How many are correctly matched? (a) Only two (b) Only three (c) All four — WRONG (see below) (d) Only one

Correct answer: (b) Only three — Nirbhay is subsonic (Mach 0.6-0.7), not supersonic. Pairs 1, 2 and 4 are correct.

Q6. With reference to DeepSeek (Jan 2025), which of the following best describes its significance? (a) It demonstrated that frontier AI models can be trained cost-effectively with fewer GPUs, challenging US AI supremacy. (b) It was India's first domestically developed large language model. (c) It was the first AI model to pass the Turing Test. (d) It is an AI chip competing with NVIDIA's H100.

Q7. Consider the following statements about India's semiconductor ecosystem:

1. The Micron Technology ATMP plant at Sanand became operational in June 2025.
2. Tata Electronics' Dholera fab will produce 5 nm chips.
3. India Semiconductor Mission provides 50% capital subsidy.

Which are correct? (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation: Tata-PSMC Dholera fab produces 28/40 nm chips, not 5 nm.

Q8. The Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) was renamed TRUST in: (a) May 2022 (b) November 2023 (c) February 2025 (d) June 2024

Q9. Consider the following about Aditya-L1:

1. It reached the L1 Lagrange point halo orbit on 6 January 2024.
2. The SUIT payload observed a solar flare and rare plasma ejection in 2025.
3. L1 is located approximately 1.5 million km from Earth, between Earth and Sun.

Which are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Q10. Which one of the following best describes the Integrated Rocket Force (IRF)? (a) Nuclear-armed ballistic missile force under Strategic Forces Command. (b) Conventional surface-to-surface rocket/missile force under the Chief of Defence Staff. (c) India's retaliation force for cyber and space domains. (d) A joint India-Russia missile development programme.

Q11. Consider the following pairs (Missile test event — Year):

1. SpaDEx docking — 2025
2. Agni-V MIRV (Mission Divyastra) — 2024
3. Pralay user trials — 2025
4. BrahMos Block-III first test — 2025

How many are correctly matched? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

Explanation: BrahMos Block-III is an older variant; the 2025 news is BrahMos ER (Extended Range) procurement order. Pairs 1, 2, and 3 are correct.

Q12. India's Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act 2023 introduces a body called: (a) Digital Data Commission of India (b) Data Protection Board of India (c) Personal Data Regulatory Authority (d) Cyber Data Tribunal

Q13. Consider the following about NISAR:

1. NISAR stands for NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar.
2. It carries both L-band (NASA) and S-band (ISRO) radars.
3. SAR sensors cannot penetrate clouds and can only work in daytime.

Which are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation: SAR is an active sensor; it can work through clouds and at night (unlike optical).

Q14. Under the Bharat 6G Vision (released March 2023), India targets: (a) 100 GW solar capacity by 2030 (b) 5 million 5G base stations by 2025 (c) 10% of global 6G patents (d) USD 100 billion space economy by 2030

Q15. Which of the following about the Genome India Project is correct? (a) It is an initiative of MeitY to sequence 100 million Indians. (b) It completed sequencing ~10,000 whole human genomes from diverse Indian populations in June 2025, led by DBT and CCMB. (c) It is a private initiative by Tata Sons to build India's genomic database. (d) It focuses exclusively on cancer genome sequencing for precision oncology.

End of Chapter E — Science & Technology Next chapter: F — Geography & Disaster Management (Chapter F) OR O — Government Schemes (Chapter O)